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The tug of war that behavior analysts and insurance companies engage in can be all-encompassing! The dichotomy of clinical effectiveness vs. necessity of standards is real enough that the Behavior Analyst Certification Board® (BACB) has an ethics code that relates to it (2014):
"2.04 d. Behavior analysts put the client's care above all others and, should the third party make requirements for services that are contraindicated by the behavior analyst's recommendations, behavior analysts are obligated to resolve such conflicts in the best interest of the client. If said conflict cannot be resolved, that behavior analyst's services to the client may be discontinued following appropriate transition."
Behavior Analyst Certification Board®
While Code 2.04 may not specifically be written for insurance companies, there are most definitely times when behavior analysts’ clinical recommendations are at odds with what the insurance company (payor) will accept. One of the biggest areas where this comes into play is with assessments. The BACB has something to say on this, too:
3.01 Behavior-Analytic Assessment
(a) Behavior analysts conduct assessments prior to making recommendations or developing behavior-change programs. The type of assessment used is determined by the client's need and consent, environmental parameters, and other contextual variables. When behavior analysts are developing a behavior-reduction program, they must first conduct a functional assessment.
(b) Behavior analysts have an obligation to collect and graphically display data, using behavior analytic conventions, in a manner that allows for decisions and recommendations for behavior-change program development.
Behavior Analyst Certification Board®
The BACB tells behavior analysts the type of assessment used is determined by the client’s (1) needs and (2) consent, (3) environmental parameters, and other (4) contextual variables.
When to Assess
According to The Council for Autism Service Providers Practice Guidelines, client's behaviors must be assessed before creating a treatment plan and periodically to guide treatment and evaluate progress (for example, on a semiannual basis). Some payors require certain assessments at regular intervals. Each learners are different and some may need assessment more often than every 6 months and some may need it less. Functional assessment of behaviors should be conducted when creating a Behavior Intervention Plan or if the learner is not making expected progress.
Types of Assessment
ABA Skill Repertoire
Designed for Behavior Analysts to identify behavioral and skill excesses and deficits that guide the creation of an appropriate and effective treatment plan. Examples include VB-MAPP, ABLLS-R, PEAK, EFL.
Adaptive Behavior
Assesses the person's independent display of skills necessary for normal daily living. Adaptive Behavior includes grooming, getting dressed, avoiding danger, eating, following school rules, managing money, chores, getting and maintaining a job, and making friends. Examples include the Vineland and the ABAS-3.
Autism Screening and Assessment
Identifies children on the autism spectrum and assesses the severity of core symptoms, deficits, and behavioral outcomes. Many of these instruments are used as outcome measures in research and clinical settings, especially clinical trials (Payakachat, 2013). This assessment is performed or supervised by a professional whose scope of practice includes diagnosing. Examples include the CARS, ADOS and ADI.
*Developmental
Measures various aspects concerning a child's physical and mental growth and development while mapping a child's performance compared with children of similar age. Examples include PEP-3, Vineland and Bailey III.
*Functional Assessment of Problem Behavior
Identifies the aspects of the environment that may contribute to the development and continued occurrence of problem behavior. That is functional assessments are designed to identify where, when, and why problem behavior occurs (CASP, 2014). Examples include the MAS, QABF and FAI.
Intellectual
Tests an individual's current intellectual functioning often measured through various reasoning tasks and assigning an intelligence quotient (IQ). The assessment is done by Psychologists. Examples include the Standford-Binet and WISC-5.
*Parental Stress
Identifies issues that may lead to problems in the child's or parent's behavior and stress. Examples include the PSI-4 and PSS.
*Social and Emotional
Detects and monitors signals that indicate whether a child may be delayed in aspects of social-emotional development, such as communication, autonomy, affect, and interaction with people. Examples include the Social Skills Checklist, SRS-2 and SSRS.
Speech and Language
Measures of a person's communication skills. The evaluation is done by a speech-language clinician. Examples include the CELF-5, TOPL and TOPS.
*Transitional and Vocational
Evaluates a person's strengths, needs, preferences, and interests as they relate to the demands of current and future living, learning, and working environments. Examples include the Brigance Transitional Skills Inventory and Career Ability Placement Survey.
*BCBAs and BCBA-Ds can usually administer these assessments with training and sometimes certification depending on the instrument.
Qualification Levels of Assessment
The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing published by the American Educational Research Association (AERA), American Psychological Association (APA), and the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME) maintain that individuals should use only those tests for which they have the appropriate training and expertise. Many assessment vendors require that the provider demonstrate qualifications in order to purchase assessments. For Example Pearson has 3 levels of qualifications (2021).
"Qualification Level A
There are no special qualifications to purchase these products.
Qualification Level B
- A master's degree in psychology, education, speech language pathology, occupational therapy, social work, counseling, or in a field closely related to the intended use of the assessment, and formal training in the ethical administration, scoring, and interpretation of clinical assessments.
OR
- Certification by or full active membership in a professional organization (such as ASHA, AOTA, AERA, ACA, AMA, CEC, AEA, AAA, EAA, NAEYC, NBCC) that requires training and experience in the relevant area of assessment.
OR
- A degree or license to practice in the healthcare or allied healthcare field.
OR
- Formal, supervised mental health, speech/language, occupational therapy, social work, counseling, and/or educational training specific to assessing children, or in infant and child development, and formal training in the ethical administration, scoring, and interpretation of clinical assessments.
OR
- Work for an accredited institution
Qualification Level C
Tests with a C qualification require a high level of expertise in test interpretation, and can be purchased by individuals with:
- A doctorate degree in psychology, education, or a closely related field with formal training in the ethical administration, scoring, and interpretation of clinical assessments related to the intended use of the assessment.
OR
- Licensure or certification to practice in your state in a field related to the purchase.
OR
- Certification by or full active membership in a professional organization (such as APA, NASP, NAN, INS) that requires training and experience in the relevant area of assessment.
- Certification by or full active membership in a professional organization (such as APA, NASP, NAN, INS) that requires training and experience in the relevant area of assessment ."
The above qualification levels are taken directly from Pearson Assessments
What should I do if I don't meet the qualifications for a requested assessment?
Some of the assessments in the below list are not behavior analytic in nature and for some, behavior analysts do not have the qualifications to administer the assessment. So, what do behavior analysts do if they want to use a replacement assessment that isn’t accepted by the insurance company? This is a tricky question and not one that is easily answered. We see several options.
- Expand your scope – Some behavior analysts may be in a position where they can seek more education on the topic. This is especially important if you see assessments that you want to use, and you feel will be beneficial to your client. Clinical Psychologists, for instance, take coursework in evaluations, assessments, and statistics.
- Find someone with the right experience who can partner with your or supervise you – Many behavior analysts work in organizations where there are other professionals who have the necessary experience. Or you can see outside help.
- Shape the behavior of the insurance company – Make the case for the assessments that you need to make the important clinical decisions that you need to make. The more people who do this, the more likely insurance companies will respond. It is also necessary to make sure that there is adequate research and evidence-basis for the assessments that you are suggesting.
- You'll also want to check your state's psychology or other practice laws to be sure you're operating not just within your scope of practice, but within what is lawful for your state.
While there is no easy answer to this conundrum, it does highlight the need for behavior analysts to become more familiar with the assessment tools that exist and are evidence-based, and work together with other behavior analysts as well as professionals outside of our field to get to the best outcomes for the individuals whom we serve.
List of Most Common Assessments Requested by Payors
(if there are any assessments that you feel are very commonly used and are missing, contact emaley@motivity.net)
ABAS-3 (Adaptive Behavior Assessment System)
Description & Use: Provides a complete assessment of adaptive skills across the life span.
Assessment Type: Adaptive Behavior
Research: “For the 11 skill areas assessed—norm-referenced scaled scores. For the 3 adaptive domains and the General Adaptive Composite (GAC)—norm-referenced standard scores, confidence intervals for standard scores, and percentile ranks. In addition, all scores can be categorized descriptively”
Qualifications: Level C: MA (psychologist, SLP, OT) A master’s degree (MA, MS, MSW CAGS) in psychology, school counseling, occupational therapy, speech-language pathology, social work, education, special education, or related field; OR BA (occupational therapist) A bachelor’s degree (BA, BS) in fields listed above AND License or certification from an agency/organization that requires training and experience in assessment
Ages: birth to 89 years
Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills (Revised) ABLLS-R®
What is the ABLLS-R®?
The ABLLS-R® (Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills-Revised) is a powerful tool for assessing and supporting language development and critical skills in children with autism or other developmental disabilities. Inspired by principles from B.F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior (1957), it’s more than an assessment—it’s also a curriculum and tracking system that helps children build essential skills step by step.
What Skills Does It Cover?
The ABLLS-R® evaluates 544 skills across 25 important areas that help children succeed in everyday life. These include:
- Communicating and understanding language
- Social interaction and play
- Self-help skills like dressing and eating
- Early academic concepts
- Motor skills for daily activities
Each task starts with basic skills and progresses to more complex ones, making it easy to measure progress and guide instruction.
Who Is It For?
The ABLLS-R® is suitable for children of all ages who need support in language and learning. Its primary focus is on skills most children develop between the ages of 2 and 6, a critical period for learning and growth.
Why Use the ABLLS-R®?
This tool isn’t just about assessing—it’s about taking action. By identifying learning gaps, it offers a clear path for educators, parents, and therapists to help children reach their potential.
Research Supporting the ABLLS-R®
- Validation of the Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills Revised for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder using an Expert Review Panel.
- A Pilot Study on Patterns of Skill Development of Neurotypical Children as Measured by the ABLLS-R: Implications for Educational Programming for Children with Autism.
Do You Need Training?
No formal qualifications are required to use the ABLLS-R®, but training is recommended to help you make the most of it.
Where to Purchase
The ABLLS-R® is available through Partington Behavior Analysts. Here’s what they offer:
- The ABLLS-R® Set (Guide + Protocol): $64.95
- Individual Guide or Protocol: $39.95 each
If you’re looking for additional tools, the Data and Task Organizer Kit is available for $495. It includes picture cards and instructions that align with the ABLLS-R® assessment (helpful but not required).
For more details or to purchase, visit the Partington Behavior Analysts website. You can also find research articles validating the ABLLS-R® on their site.
ADOS-2 (Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule Second Edition)
Description & Use: “Allows you to accurately assess and diagnose autism spectrum disorders across age, developmental level, and language skills"
Ages: 12 months through adulthood
Assessment Type: Autism Screening and Assessment
Qualifications: Level C: MA (psychologist, SLP, OT) A master’s degree (MA, MS, MSW, CAGS) in psychology, school counseling, occupational therapy, speech–language pathology, social work, education, special education, or related field; OR BA (occupational therapist) A bachelor’s degree (BA, BS) in fields listed above AND License or certification from an agency/organization that requires training and experience in assessment
Assessment of Functional Living Skills (AFLS)
Description & Use
The Assessment of Functional Living Skills (AFLS) is a criterion-referenced skills assessment tool, tracking system, and curriculum guide. AFLS is used for teaching children, adolescents, and adults with developmental disabilities the essential skills they need to achieve the most independent outcomes.
Skill Areas
The AFLS Full Set assesses and provides curriculum guides for six key areas:
- Basic Living Skills
- Home Skills
- Community Participation Skills
- School Skills
- Independent Living Skills
- Vocational Skills
Ages
The AFLS is a criterion-referenced assessment designed to be used from early elementary through adulthood.
Assessment Type
ABA Skill Repertoire Assessments
Research
- Measuring Outcomes of Parents Teaching Functional Skills to Their Son With Autism Using the Assessment of Functional Living Skills the AFLS®
Qualifications
None. Training is recommended.
Reference & Publisher
You can purchase the paper copies or digital versions of the AFLS through the Functional Living Skills Store or the digital version The AFLS® is developed and published by Behavior Analysts, Inc., the same organization behind this research-backed assessment.
Developmental Profile 3
Description & Use: “Allows you to quickly screen a child for developmental delays in five key areas”
Assessment Type: Developmental
Ages: Birth to 12 years, 11 months
Research: Standardized on a nationally representative sample of 2,216 individuals
Qualifications: Level B: BA (schoolteacher) A bachelor’s degree (BA, BS) in psychology, school counseling, occupational therapy, speech–language pathology, social work, education, special education, or related field.
Daily Living Activities-20 (DLA-20)
Description & Use: “The Daily Living Activities (DLA) Functional Assessment is a functional assessment, proven to be reliable and valid, designed to assess what daily living areas are impacted by mental illness or disability. The assessment tool quickly identifies where outcomes are needed so clinicians can address those functional deficits on individualized service plans.”
Assessment Type: Adaptive Behavior
Ages: all ages
Research: “The DLA is a reliable and valid measure for the purposes of level of care consideration, treatment planning around outcomes, and to correlate and predict DSMIV, Axis V. Two studies with 971 consumers over repeated measures will be reviewed with the results reflecting a satisfactory treatment plan time-saver for case coordinators. The tool is published in the Research on Social Work Practice (Abstract and other reference articles are in Appendix B). Please note, however, that since 2005, the DLA has been copyrighted to protect reliability and validity, not for additional monetary remuneration beyond training fees.”
Qualifications: Level A: The consumer’s primary clinician or case manager typically has the most information about daily functioning at home or in the community and are best prepared to complete the form.
Essentials for Living (EFL)
Description & Use
Essential for Living (EFL) is a comprehensive communication, behavior, and life skills curriculum, assessment, and practitioner’s guide. It’s designed for both verbal and non-verbal children and adults with moderate to very severe disabilities, including autism, and those with limited skill repertoires. According to McGreevy, it is “composed of functional skills and behaviors, which are essential for effective daily living and which result in an improved quality of life for children and adults.”
Skill Areas
Essential for Living covers more than 3,000 skills organized into key domains, including:
- Communication and language skills
- Daily living skills
- Social and functional academic skills
- Tolerating skills
- A domain specifically addressing severe problem behavior
Assessment Type: ABA Skill Repertoire Assessments
Ages: 2 through adulthood
Research: no published research as of May 2020
Qualifications: “[EFL] was written in language familiar to most professionals in the fields of special education, developmental disabilities, and rehabilitation.” Training is recommended.
Reference & Publisher: The EFL can be purchased on Patrick McGreevy's site.
Early Start Denver Model Curriculum Checklist
Description & Use: The Early Start Denver Model Curriculum Checklist for Young Children with Autism is used to comprehensively assess the skills of toddlers and preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder across multiple developmental domains and to establish individualized teaching objectives. Administered every 12 weeks, it is an essential component of the intervention program described in the authoritative manual, Early Start Denver Model for Young Children with Autism. Sold in sets of 15 ready-to-use booklets.
Assessment Type: ABA Skill Repertoire Assessments
Ages: Toddlers
Qualifications: Become certified in ESDM
FAST (Functional Analysis Screening Tool)
Description & Use: “The Functional Analysis Screening Tool (FAST) is a 16‐item questionnaire about antecedent and consequent events that might be correlated with the occurrence of problem behavior. Items are organized into 4 functional categories based on contingencies that maintain problem behavior. “
Assessment Type: Functional Assessment of Problem Behavior
Ages: all ages
Research: Reliability and Validity of FAST
Qualifications: Level B
Reference & Publisher: Download FAST PDF
PDDBI (Pervasive Developmental Disorder Behavior Inventory)
Description & Use: “Assesses responsiveness to intervention in children with ASD. Unlike existing assessments for ASD, the PDDBI was developed to assess both problem behaviors as well as appropriate social, language, and learning/memory skills.”
Assessment Type: Autism Screening and Assessment
Ages: 1 year, 6 months to 18 years, 5 months
Qualifications: Level B: A degree from an accredited 4-year college or university in psychology, counseling, speech-language pathology, or a closely related field plus satisfactory completion of coursework in test interpretation, psychometrics and measurement theory, educational statistics, or a closely related area; or license or certification from an agency that requires appropriate training and experience in the ethical and competent use of psychological tests.
Research: Standardization sample consisted of 369 parents and 277 teachers of children with well-defined autism from a range of racial/ethnic backgrounds and geographic regions.
Test-retest stability for the teacher ratings ranged from .65 to .99 over an average 2-week interval. For the parent sample, test-retest stability ratings ranged from .38 to .91 over a 12-month interval.
Concurrent validity was assessed through comparison with the Childhood Autism Rating Scale, the Nisonger Child Behavior Scales, the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, and the Griffiths Mental Development Scales.
Clinical validity was assessed through comparison with the ADI™-R, the ADOS™-G, and the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales.”
VB-MAPP
Description & Use
The Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VB-MAPP) is a powerful tool for assessing and supporting language development in children with autism and others with language delays. This criterion-referenced assessment, curriculum guide, and skill tracking system is grounded in B.F. Skinner’s (1957) analysis of verbal behavior, established developmental milestones, and behavior analysis research. It provides a clear roadmap for identifying gaps in language and communication skills and guiding intervention efforts.
Skill Areas
The VB-MAPP evaluates a wide range of critical skills, including:
- Mand (requesting)
- Tact (labeling)
- Echoic (vocal imitation)
- Intraverbal (conversation skills)
- Listener skills
- Motor imitation
- Independent play
- Social and social play skills
- Visual perceptual and matching-to-sample skills
- Linguistic structure
- Group and classroom participation
- Early academic skills
Ages: 2-6
Assessment Type: ABA Skill Repertoire Assessments
Qualifications: Level B: A degree from an accredited 4-year college or university in psychology, counseling, speech-language pathology, or a closely related field plus satisfactory completion of coursework in test interpretation, psychometrics and measurement theory, educational statistics, or a closely related area; or license or certification from an agency that requires appropriate training and experience in the ethical and competent use of psychological tests.
Research: See a list of research related to VB-MAPP on Mark's Website
Reference & Publisher: Order the books from VBPress and digital VB-MAPP app
Vineland-3 (Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales)
Description & Use: “Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales Third Edition is the leading instrument for supporting the diagnosis of intellectual and developmental disabilities. Vineland-3 not only aids in diagnosis, but provides valuable information for developing educational and treatment plans”
Ages: birth to 90+
Assessment Type: Adaptive Behavior
Qualifications: LEVEL B: Tests may be purchased by individuals with: A master's degree in psychology, education, occupational therapy, social work, or in a field closely related to the intended use of the assessment, and formal training in the ethical administration, scoring, and interpretation of clinical assessments. OR · Certification by or full active membership in a professional organization (such as ASHA, AOTA, AERA, ACA, AMA, CEC, AEA, AAA, EAA, NAEYC, NBCC that requires training and experience in the relevant area of assessment. OR · A degree or license to practice in the healthcare or allied healthcare field. OR Formal, supervised mental health, speech/language, and/or educational training specific to assessing children, or in infant and child development, and formal training in the ethical administration, scoring, and interpretation of clinical assessments.
Research: “Total sample size 6,535. Norm sample for Interview and Parent/Caregiver Forms each comprised 2,560 people. The Teacher Form sample was 1,415 students.”
Reference & Publisher: Order from Pearson
Additional References:
Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2014). Professional and ethical compliance code for
behavior analysts. Littleton, CO: Author.
Council of Autism Service Providers (“CASP”). Ver. 2.0 (2020). Applied Behavior Analysis
Treatment of Autism Spectrum Disorder: Practice Guidelines for Healthcare Funders and Managers. https://casproviders.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ABA-ASD-Practice-Guidelines.pdf
Pearson. (2021, Feb 2). Qualifications Policy. https://www.pearsonassessments.com/professional-assessments/ordering/how-to-order/qualifications/qualifications-policy.html
Texas Education Agency. (2019) Autism Evaluations. https://www.txautism.net/evaluations